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Notes by Holly Kohane

Graddol, Leith, Swann, Chapter 6 222-224 Variation in English Grammar

When talking about STANDARD and NONSTANDARD English the focus is typically on the spoken word rather than the written words.

Chapter 6, McWhorter, Black English

Is Black English just slang?

The Sound System of Black English

1. Prominent difference: "th" --> "d" Examples: those -> dose and then -> den

2. "Disprefers" clusters of consonants- Examples: test->tes and kept-> kep especially at the beginning and ends through->thoo of words

3. Substitutes "ah" for the vowel sound in "rice" Examples: nice->nahs and bride->brahd

The above are examples of how Black English simplifies the language, making dipthongs into monothongs.

Blacks English sounds are complex as often as they are simple.

Complication: "i" in bill -> "ee-uh" as in beal Examples: kill->keel and kid->kee-id

Black English is exceedingly difficult for people who haven't grown-up speaking it to imitate. The Black English accent is difficult to pick up because it has a complex, subtle sound system.

Sentence Structure

I am a student --> I be a student You are a student --> You be a student

"be" is a marker of habituality in Black English

Present Tense: He is walking by right now. Habitual: He is walking by every day to give her bread lately, so she shouldn't worry. Habitual (another way): He walks by every day to give her bread.

Standard Black Habitual (bare):

he walks he walk

Habitual (compound):

he is walking he be walkin'

Present: he is walking he walkin'

In sentence structures in which B.E. happens to be the simpler dialect other languages of the world considered quite complex and respectable have the same construction.

The absence of the verb "to be" is not a flaw. It is a typical situation in languages around the world. It is Standard English that is odd in insisting on using "to be" so widely.

"Done" is as complex as it is simple. It is used to express the recent past, but not the distant past. It can also intensify a past action. It is also used in future perfect expression.

Black English is also known for its multiple uses of double negation.

Standard English uses "there is" Black English uses "it" or "it's"

B.E. often omits the -s ending in the 3rd person singular Example: He talk to me all the time.

B.E. often makes the first person singular with -s Example: He don't even know how much I makes.

Code Switching is the way most African Americans use Black English, especially Middle Class Americans.

"Deep" and "Light" As a rule of thumb, the depth of one's Black English correlates with level of education.

"bees" infrequently used

thing --> thang sing --> sang All infrequently used ring --> rang

More consistent use of Black English is generally reserved for use with other blacks.

Black English arose among slaves in the plantation South from:

1. Speech of white plantation owners 2. Indentured whites from Great Britain 3. Creole English

Black English evolved independently of any forms of American English.

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