Back to G301 Homepage or G301 Schedule

Julie Horne

Reading Summary, Graddol, Leith and Swann, chapter 1 (pages 3-28)

The chapter begins by questioning what counts as English. It gives a very brief history of English as a language first developed around 1140 B.C. and used by the monolinguists of the British Isles. The time periods for the different types of English are given as Old English 1149 B.C. to 1000 A.D., Late old English from 1000 to 1149 A.D., Middle English from 1150 A.D. to 1349 or 1469-ish. A period of Late middle English overlaps between 1350 and 1469 A.D. Then Modern English follows after 1469.

English is seen as a language that is not "fixed" but always changing. Contact and borrowing are introduced as concepts that are part of the natural progression of the language. The Pros and Cons of borrowing are discussed in this section.

The next section of the chapter is an exercise in the different types of dialects that are considered English. Some do not appear that they would be mutually intelligible to an American English speaker. One of the main reasons they seem so different is because they are the written rather than the spoken form. Creoles and Pidgins are also mentioned in this section.

It is mentioned in the next section that Linguists study regional and social differences in the use of English by studying the spoken rather than the written language of the groups being studied. They are interested in different accents and dialects and the different social meanings they carry.

It is estimated that English is used by 750 million people internationally. The authors acknowledge that the exact numbers can never really be known. English speakers are seen in different groups as native and non-native speakers. There is some question over how to even count someone as an English speaker. The authors question how much and how often does someone have to speak English to be considered an English speaker? There are benefits of being proficient with English at least some of the time. There are many scientific, legal and technical documents that are printed only in English. For someone to have access to the knowledge contained in them, he or she must have English skills.

Next there is a discussion of where and when English is spoken. An example is given of a man who considers himself a native of both Singapore and England. He does not feel as though he fits into either society because of the language differences. Those in England see him as being from Singapore and those in Singapore see him as being from England.

In Kenya, English is used as the official language to keep peace. It is seen as a peaceful alternative to placing any of the indigenous languages on a higher official status than any of the other languages. English was brought to Kenya and many other places through British colonization. In Kenya, the use of English is closely tied to education and social status.

English also has official status in France. This creates a problem in New Brunswick, Ontario, and Quebec, where French is spoken. The Francophones in these areas feel as though they are oppressed by the numbers of the Anglophones. They want to preserve their use of French as their official language while being able to gain the economic benefits of the mostly English speaking business world. In 1977, steps were taken in Quebec to protect the rights and future of its francophones.

English is seen as a pest in France. It has no official status, but the French feel as though they are on the brink of being overrun by "Anglo-American" influences. France has passed laws to keep "Franglais" and English out of France. The government also publishes brochures offering French alternatives to English words that make it to France by way of the import of goods and music.

In closing, the authors present opinions based on what may or may not be standard English, and the social hierarchy of the different forms of English whether it be Indian, British, American, etc. There is general agreement that the true value of English and the benefit to English speakers is the vast amount of published knowledge available to them.

Back to G301 Homepage or G301 Schedule