Historical Setting
French and Industrial Revolutions
Changes in 19th century
-wealth
-nationalism & growth of government
-new technology
-continuing scientific revolution
- education (universities)
-social changes
Paris School of Medicine
Hospitals (Hôtel Dieu)
Xavier Bichat (1771-1802)
Revolution in diagnosis
René Laennec, A Treatise on the Diseases of the Chest (orig. publ. 1821)
Pierre Louis (1787-1872) "numerical method"
Influence of Paris
Britain
Guy’s Hospital, London
Stethoscope introduced in 1825 by Thomas Hodgkin (disease 1832), cancer of lymph
Richard Bright (disease 1827), kidney disorder
Thomas Addison (disease 1855), pernicious anemia
Robert Graves (Ireland) hyperthyroidism, 1834
U.S.
Germany
Microscopes and laboratory
Justus Liebig (1803-1873)
Schleiden, Schwann and the cell
Rudolf Virchow (1821-1902)
Cellular pathology
"omnis cellula a cellula"
Pharmacology
Impact of chemical and industrial revolution
Refinement of substances in plants strychnine, quinine, caffeine, nicotine
commercial sale
Entry into universities came later (1850)
Physiology: France and Claude Bernard
William Beaumont (1785-1853), U.S.
Claude Bernard (1813-78), FranceLiver and secretions
Internal environment
Experimental Medicine (1865)
Later diagnosis and instrumentation
Stethoscope
Microscope (1877 white, red blood cells)
Thermometer (1841 linked to disease)
Spirometer (1846 lungs)
Sphymomanometer (1835 blood pressure)
Chemical tests (1841 urinalysis)
X-ray (1895)
Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (1845-1923)