CORE CONCEPTS
IN
UNDERSTANDING THE HUMAN EXPERIENCE

With this awareness, we can maximize our chances for obtaining more valid and reliable information, for making grounded interpretations, and, perhaps most important, qualifying our interpretations to acknowledge where they are and are not relevant.

HUMAN'S PLACE IN NATURE
and
Principles for Understanding Evolution of Life Forms

Humans are only one of the millions of life forms on earth. Where do we stand in the natural order of things? Have we evolved beyond other life forms? Do other life forms and natural resources exist for our sole use? Are we separate from Nature and able to control our destiny? Or are we a part of Nature, and subject to the natural laws of the Universal systems around us?

Some concepts in Evolution can help us to better understand our place in Nature, including:

• Biological evolution is a change in the frequency of genes in a population over time.
• The basic mechanism of biological evolution is natural selection, where the carriers of those genes which are more adaptive to environmental conditions survive and pass on those genes in greater frequency over generations.
• Diversity is adaptive, because the more different types of traits in a group the more likely the group will have the necessary potentials to meet environmental challenges, particularly new and unforeseen ones.
• The two aspects of the phenotype are morphology (biophysical traits and processes) and behavior (active/reactive functions of organisms).
  Two important concepts which should be kept distinct are: race, which refers to the genetic frequencies in a population at a particular point in time, and ethnicity, which refers to the behavioral patterns of a group. (Therefore, different races may share a similar ethnic heritage, and groups of the same race may have different ethnic heritages.)
• As we compare ourselves with other species on Earth, we can see that humans share many morphological and behavioral traits with other life forms, from single cell organisms, to vertibrates, to mammals, to primates and great apes.
• We can also see that humans have some morphological and behavioral traits that are relatively unique, including brain structures, reproductive behavior, verbal communication, and abstract and integrative thinking.
• As we trace the course of hominid evolution over the last million or so years, we can identify those characteristics that ditinguish us as a species:
  • Humans are primarily adapted for learning.
  • Humans primary means of adaptation is by culture.

ADAPTATION
and
Principles for Understanding the Reorganization of Interacting Systems

The concept of adaptation provides many insights into understanding the driving forces that initiate and direct morphological and behavioral changes on Earth, including changes among humans around the world today.

Principles for understanding the process of adaptation include:

• Adaptation is the systems process in how a group's biobehavioral potentials interact with its environmental challenges, which enhances its survival and continuation.
  This process involves the biological, ecological, and cultural systems of a group.
  The principle of systems is important in the anthropological perspective, and includes:
  • Components: Asking what are the different parts that are included in the system
  • Interactions: Asking how these different components are interrelated and mutually influence each other
  • Outcomes: Asking what are the results from how all the interacting components in the system function together
  Changes in one part of the system affect other parts and the balance of the functioning whole
• Cultural adaptation is the systems process in how a group's behavioral potentials interact with its environmental challenges, which enhances its survival and continuation.
• A bio-cultural model of adaptation involves a SYSTEMS process of two sets of interacting forces, including:
  1. The internal potentials that a group brings to a setting, including its needs (conditions necessary for its existence) and resources (abilities which can be used to enhance the group's adaptation).
     • Potentials can range from fixed/innate to highly plastic/developed; and the ultimate criterion for assessing the plasticity of a trait is how much it can be changed in interaction with the environment. (The degree of observed variations can provide an intermediate estimate).
     • A group's potentials are ultimately based in its genetic heritage (such as the structure of the brain).
     • Diversity is adaptive, because the more different types of traits in a group the more likely the group will have the necessary potentials to meet environmental challenges, particularly new and unforeseen ones.
     • A major resource for humans is culture. Humans have extensive potentials for developed behaviors (rather than being limited to specific fixed behaviors. Plastic behavioral potentials which can be readily changed in meeting environmental conditions, and therefore provide a rapid and flexible means of adaptation (compared to evolving physiological traits over millions of years).
  2. The environmental challenges in the group's setting, including constraints (conditions imposed by the environment which are necessary for existence) and opportunities (conditions which can be used to enhance the group's existence).
     • Environmental challenges select from among all of a group's potentials those traits that contribute to the best adaptive balance.
• The basic process of adaptation is reorganization of the system, as a group's potentials interact with its environmental challenges. It is the system that changes, not just traits. Adaptation is a continuous evolutionary process, where populations evolve (rather than individuals).
• The ultimate measure of the adaptiveness of a trait is how much it contributes to the continuation of the group. (Intermediate measures of the well-being of a group which promotes continuation are also often used, such as health.) Adaptation is a relative process, in terms of the more or less optimal internal functioning of a group and its greater or lesser balance with environmental conditions.
• In assessing adaptation, time frames must be kept in mind, since what is adaptive at one point may be maladaptive under altered conditions, and what is not adaptive at one time may be more adaptive under altered conditions.
• Understanding the PROCESS of adaptation can help us better understand contemporary issues. Asking poor questions can lead to misunderstandings (like "nature or nurturance?"... the more valid issue is "nature and nurturance; how much of each?").

CULTURE
and
Principles for Understanding Ethnic Behavior

The concept of culture is a major perspective in Anthropology for understading human behavior, and provides many insights into understanding the wide range of ethnic behavior we can observe around the world.

Principles for understanding the integrated natural of cultural behavior include:

• Culture is the whole, learned, and shared behavioral system of a group of people.
  • The behaviors involved in human culture are largely highly plastic, and therefore can be readily developed in adapting to environmental conditions.
• Culture is an integrated system, where every trait mutually interacts with every other trait directly or indirectly.
  • The systems perspective is important in the questions to ask about a culture:
    • What are the components or traits of the cultural system?
    • How do these different traits interact and mutually influence each other?
    • What are the outcomes or adaptive functions that result from these interacting traits?
  • Also, how do changes in one part of the system affect other parts and the balance of the functioning whole?
• Cultures are relative, so that each culture has to be considered in the context of its own behavioral system.
  • It can be misleading to look at others' ways as "similar" or "different" than our own, because we are limiting our understandings by our own exerience rather than theirs.
  • To gain more valid understandings, we need to consider a particular culture as distinct in terms of how their behavioral system is organized.
• The levels of cultural experience include:
  • The meanings (what people believe and how they feel about their life and ways), and
  • The adaptive functions (how behavioral traits contributes to the group's continuation).
• The adaptive functions of cultural traits which contribute to the group's continuation include:
  • Biological functions: those behaviors that promote the physical well-being and reproductive success of the group
  • Subsistence/Economic functions: those behaviors that contribute to meeting a group's basic material needs which support its way of life
  • Social functions: those behaviors that foster cohesion within a group and that minimize conflicts and disruptions among its members
  • Psychological functions: those behaviors that support a meaningful identity, a constructive sense of purpose, and productive orientation towards life among members of the group
  • Ecological functions: those behaviors that facilitate a productive balance with the group's external conditions

ETHNOCENTRISM
and
Principles for Understanding Our Misunderstanding

One of the most important concepts in Anthropology is ethnocentrism. The long history of humans misunderstanding other humans is obvious, and this misunderstanding often leaves to severe forms of discrimination and genocide. While contemporary events make us all aware of such abuses, we can recognize the underlying problems in our own society where we experience many forms of prejudice every day.

Principles for understanding the underlying causes of ethnocentrism, and, more important, how to recognize and control for this bias, include:

• Ethnocentrism is making false assumptions about others' behavior based on our own limited experience.
  • This is beyond the normal definition of "believing your own culture is the best," (which carries the implication that we are flawed for seeing life through whatever we have already experienced). Since our own experience is the basis of our "reality", everybody is ethnocentric, and it is impossible not to assume false negative and false positive interpretations of other cultures.
  • It is natural to be ethnocentric, but it is not OK
    Why?
• The basic problem with ethnocentrism is that it leads us to misunderstand others. We see their ways in terms of our life experience, not in terms of their context. A severe form of ethnocentrism is seen in racism and, in the extreme, "ethnic cleansing." But even when people have benign intentions, they still may convey to others that they are not "normal" and thus cause hurt or ill feelings. Underlying all this is that we do not understand their experience, and therefore may be prone to misjudge their ways.
• This presents a paradox: we assume (and therefore misunderstand others) because we do not even understand that we do not understand, and so we aren't even aware that we can develop more valid and balanced understandings about how they experience life.
• SO WHAT CAN WE DO? The scientific principle that grounded understandings is not based on the absence of biases but rather on the recognition and control of biases applies to ethnocentrism. Since it is impossible not to be ethnocentric, the best way we can control for ethnocentrism is:
  1. To recognize our ethnocentrism when it happens, by being aware of reactions (both ours, which tells us about ourselves, and theirs, which also tells us about our own assumptions).
  2. To ask valid questions that will lead to valid understandings, in particular:
     • "What are the meanings of the behaviors to them?"
     • Even more important, "What are the adaptive functions of their behaviors in their adaptation?" (remembering that the functions may be in a very different part of culture than the meanings).
       • This is the question which usually gives us the deepest insights into cultural behavior).
  We do not have to agree with others' ways, and have the right to our own ways. But having valid understandings of the meanings and functions of others' behavior can help in maintaining constructive understandings, whether on an interpersonal, societal, or international scale.
• Interethnic encounters can be an opportunity for understanding the broad potentials humans have for being human, for understanding ourselves. This awareness keeps us open to new ways in which we ourselves can adapt to life challenges, since all human potentials are also available for us in adaptation.

For a more comprehensive discussion of this issue, see Ethnocentrism

These ideas emerge again and again in trying to gain a more accureate and balanced understanding of others' ethnic behavior, and can help us better understand the variations of the human experience in both our own and other societies around the world.

Expanding our understandings of our own and others' human behavior involves critical thinking. For more guidelines on this process, see: